LENY London Edge New York comments that it is; “The streetwear, alternative, rock & cult fashion tradeshow”. With a team in the United States and a solid, committed group from London, the buzz and attendance looks to be in excess of last year’s introductory show. The LENY New York will be held on July 21st and July 22nd at The River Pavilion Javits Center in New York. The website is www.leny.londonedge.com and they can be contacted in the U.S. at 817-626-1404.

The goal of Master & Mistress is to reintroduce singles and couples to the romance, passion and intimacy that existed in a bygone, dark, Gothic era. Lorne Caplan, an expert in human pheromone study and science, believes that the U.S. culture is in dire need of an infusion of sophistication and elegance into the relationships and lack of romance that persists today. By adding these pheromone products into ones lifestyle, he believes that any relationship will benefit from a courtship and intensity that is sorely lacking in the fast paced, Hip Hop video environment that we regularly see today.

Master & Mistress infuses its therapeutic and active fragrances, lip glosses and lubricants with a high concentration of human derived pheromones that have been written about extensively in the past five years. Humans intake the scent of fragrance and pheromones, converting these impulses into actions and emotions that elevate ones attitude, mood, state of arousal and sexual tension. Victor Goth, LLC is the parent company of the Master & Mistress brand. Visit the company’s website at www.mastermistress.com or call toll free, 866-681-6663. For more information contact info@mastermistress.com.

According to a Company spokesperson, “The results are lower than the Company anticipated as the completion of our licensee’s product development processes has taken longer than envisioned. While this delay is disappointing in the short-term, we are very encouraged that intense consumer focus groups have provided more solid data for our licensees, which should benefit the Company and our licensees when the licensees ultimately launch their products containing our technology. We would rather be a partner in a well-planned and executed product introduction, than a timelier but less effective consumer launch. Fortunately, additional licensing agreements, especially, the contract signed with the international chemical and consumer giant Schwarzkopf and Henkel, is providing higher than expected earnings for us in the current year, which has somewhat offset the delay in product launches by earlier licensees,” the spokesperson indicated.

Human Pheromone Sciences, Inc. is a technology-based company, whose proof-of concept products included prestige-priced fragrances and toiletries and environmental products sold under the Natural Attraction(R), REALM(R), innerREALM(R) and EROX(R) trademarks. These products contain mood-enhancing compounds, whose efficacy has been validated at leading universities around the world, and whose use is covered under United States and foreign patents. The Company is also involved in research and product development efforts on new compounds that have been previously identified as stimulating the emotional centers of the human brain. Further information is available on line at http://www.erox.com.

The statements in this news release may contain forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties that could cause results to differ from predicted results. Further information on factors that could affect the Company’s results is detailed in the Company’s annual report to shareholders on Form 10-KSB for the year ended December 31, 2007, and Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 2008, as filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Company undertakes no obligation to publicly release the result of any revisions to these forward-looking statements.

The next logical question to ask is how are these chemical signals recognized? Studies have shown that pheromone is first recognized by the chemical receptors in the vomeronasal organ (VNO) and olfactory bulbs located in the nose; signals are then sent t o the hypothalamus of the brain. In an experiment conducted on virgin male mice where their VNO was removed, the mice were found to generally not mate with receptive females, even if the maleis olfactory nerves were not damaged. This showed that the VNO s are needed in order start certain chains of reactions already programmed in the brain. Further studies show that when male mice have begun to associate sexual activity with other cues from females, including smells they become less dependent on the VNO s. A sexually experienced male whois VNO is removed will mate almost as frequently as a male whois VNO is still intact(2).

One of the leading researchers in this hot topic is psychologist Martha McClintock of the University of Chicago. In a paper published in the journal Nature, she reported what may be the best evidence of human pheromones yet. In a straightforward experime nt, she was able to speed up and slow down the monthly menstrual cycles of a group of women by exposing them to the smell of sweat from other women.

In a simple experiment involving 29 student volunteers, she used pads to collect released molecules from the underarms of 9 women volunteers either before or just after ovulation. The substances collected from the pad were treated with isopropyl alcohol to mask any odor and applied to the upper lips of the other 20 women volunteers. This resulted in the acceleration or shortening of their menstrual cycles, depending on which of the swabs was applied under the nose. Volunteers who were treated with the pre-ovulation pads experienced shortened menstrual cycles by as much as 14 days in 68% of the women. When exposed to the ovulation-phase pads, a different 68% experienced cycles that were up to 12 days longer. From this she believed that the female ovul ation command was carried out by pheromones.

Still further research and information is needed in order to determine what these pheromones do to the human body. If they do exist, how does our body process them? Do we have a vomeronasal organ like those found in mammals and reptiles to help detect f or pheromones? Studies have long shown the presence of the VNO in humans, but humans lack the characteristic capsule and large blood vessels of other mammals. The connections between what looks like VNO receptor neurons and the brain have not been demon strated. However, the study conducted by McClintock already suggests the notion of chemical communication in humans. This evidence is shown by the synchronization of menstrual cycles among women who live together.

What about choosing the right partner for mating in humans? Do we choose solely on appearance and personality? Or do these chemical signals somehow come into play? Just recently, there have been magazine articles and news reports of human pheromones th at are synthetically made and guaranteed to attract someone of the opposite sex. Could this really be a secret love potion of the 90is or is it all just another hoax to swindle consumers out of money? There are numerous websites luring people by claimin g they have the secret formula for iinstant sex appeali and give tips on how to most effectively use their product and enhance it’s effects on the opposite sex. Do humans have pheromones which help to woo others of the opposite sex?

One thing for sure is that all these products are made using the same essential ingredient: androstenone (the male pheromone) and androstenol (the female pheromone). It is these two chemicals which the brain processes unconciously causing physiological a nd behavioral changes. Unfortunately, not too much is known about these particular pheromones. Studies are being conducted on pigs, which are found to give off pheromones similar to those found in humans.

As we age, our olfactory acuity declines. This may be a reason for why as the older we get, the less inclination there is to be sexually active. Our nose and olfactory system are no longer able to detect these subtle chemical signals that others of the opposite sex or our partners release. Studies have shown that this loss of olfaction is not consistant in geographic regions nor is it the same for both males and females. Women were reported to have higher levels of olfactory functioning than men(3).

The possible benefits of using synthetic pheromones are being studied in different fields currently. For example, instead of using pesticides, can we instead use pheromones from insects to stop the process of mating? Or would the animals undergo some so rt of mutation, making them resistant to their old chemical signals, and develop a slightly different one? There are still many questions out there about these natural chemical signals which are released by organisms. Are they of more benefit than we th ink? Or are we making them out to be more than they really are? For now, only time and tedious research will tell.

Pheromones are chemicals that send out subconscious scent signals to the opposite sex that naturally trigger attraction, arousal and readiness for sex. When a woman receives the chemical-hormonal signals, she automatically, instinctively responds – without even realizing what is drawing her to you.

What is pheromone wipe?

Magnetic Pheromone Wipe is pheromone based wet wipe . It contains pure human pheromones. How it is said on the package of the wipe “Wipe your neck and wrist to boost your sex appeal!”

Whether these effects are 100% “true” pheromone reactions or not is an interesting point and worthy of further investigation, but is a moot point to the perfume industry.

The effects of pheromones may be modulated by the sexual experience of the target and/or by the extent to which the target’s VNO is still functional, but the fact is that a number of controlled human studies have shown that pheromones both natural and synthetic/supplemental do affect our social behavior, and a growing mountain of raving pheromone product testimonials also support these findings.

Furthermore, I have yet to come across even one pheromone study that has failed to show some significant effects from pheromones, and until that happens there is little alternative but to assume that pheromones work.

What follows are abstracts of controlled studies showing a relationship between supplemental pheromone use and human behavior.

From Cupid’s arrow to Spanish fly, world cultures are infused with the lore–and the lure–of “magic bullets” that stimulate, increase, and prolong sexual ardor in ourselves and others. This book gives detailed information on effective aphrodisiacs from traditional medical and alternative technologies, explains the facts and explodes the myths about their positive and negative effects.
The Seduction Cookbook, Diane Brown

Go beyond winning the heart of your lover through his or her stomach, and heat up some erogenous zones as well! With over 80 recipes, The Seduction Cookbook delivers alluring menus and foods styled to fit your seduction method, whatever it might be. Would you like to test the powers of aphrodisiacs? Prepare a simple, yet inspiring, omelet for the morning after? Plan a tantalizing Valentine’s Day menu? Or serve a fireside late-night snack? The Seduction Cookbook offers tips and techniques for shooting Cupid’s delicious arrow straight to the heart of your lover’s sensual appetite.

The Arginine Solution , Robert Fried, Ph.D., James Thornton, and Woodson C. Merrell, M.D.

A well-known nutrient, the amino acid arginine helps your body create nitric oxide, a simple molecule recently found to be of astonishing importance to improved health. L-arginine is a natural alternative to Viagra that can boost potency for men and increase orgasmic response in women. It has been shown to have many other health benefits as well.

Male Sexual Vitality : How You Can Benefit from Diet, Vitamins, Minerals, Herbs, Exercise, and Other Natural Methods (Getting Well Naturally), Michael T. Murray
Performance anxiety, impotence, and other aspects of male sexuality are subjects of common concern that are rarely explored. They get a thorough airing here, with recommendations of specific nutrients for optimal sexual functioning, causes and treatment of low sperm count, and natural herbs for enhanced libido and performance.

Buy: Amazon

Some aphrodisiacs work because they feed your body what it needs to produce your own natural sexy chemicals. A number of the aphrodisiacs mentioned in our women’s and men’s sections fall into the category referred to as adaptogens. These substances work with your central nervous system (CNS) to deliver more energy and endurance when you need them. But unlike other CNS stimulants, such as caffeine or amphetamines, they don’t give you that extra boost and then follow it with a big letdown. They don’t deplete your body’s reserves; instead, they build them.

We point you to specific aphrodisiacs for both men and women. When possible we give you information about how and where, online, to get the aphrodisiacs mentioned. You’re invited to try them, but be cautious. It’s a good idea to consult your physician before consuming any of these items….

Aphrodisiacs are never an alternative to:

positive sexual attitude
doing your inner work to remove psychological barriers to sexual intimacy
sexual skill mastery

a healthy diet and lifestyle
But they can be lots of fun.They are also sometimes exactly what is needed when sexual dysfunction is caused by physiological/organic causes, e.g., peripheral vascular disease, hardening of the penile arteries, diabetes mellitus, prostate enlargement, high levels of pituitary gland hormone prolactin, low testosterone (hypogonadism) , and male andropause.

“The good news is that something will work consistently for just about anyone. A bit of patience, some trial and error, and a positive mental attitude will go a long way to enhance potency and sexual pleasure.”
Dr. Zoltan Rona, M.D., Reference Note #1

US Government FDA on Aphrodisiacs – “Looking for a Libido Lift? The Facts About Aphrodisiacs”
As you might expect the FDA does not believe there are any! “According to the Food and Drug Administration, the reputed sexual effects of so-called aphrodisiacs are based in folklore, not fact. In 1989, the agency declared that there is no scientific proof that any over-the-counter aphrodisiacs work to treat sexual dysfunction.”

Please note that nothing we say here is intended as medical advice. If you desire to experiement with any of the items mentioned consult your physician first.

In a succinct guide, author and researcher William Livingstone has packed information on proven, ancient herbal sexual aphrodisiacs. Obscure sources are uncovered as a result of over twenty years of avid health research. Ancient Chinese and Indian products are examined, with their historical plus suggested usage, products helpful for erectile dysfunction (E.D.), impotence, and low libido (sex drive.)

West Palm Beach, FL, July 25, 2008 –(PR.com)– A multitude of men are increasingly dissatisfied with their sex drive, with many suffering from erectile dysfunction (E.D.), low libido and impotence. Many factors contribute to this decline in male sexual potency, including overwork, stress, lack of sleep, and estrogens in the environment, among others.

Many men are turning to the natural alternatives to prescription drugs being touted on the Internet, tv infomercials, radio, or in print ads. Most, if not all these products are overpriced and many contain yohimbe, an herb known to raise blood pressure. These products may also be weak, and a waste of the consumer’s money. Though there are some that may work, they are usually for a quick term result, not for the long term building of a flagging libido.

In a unique new book entitled Hotter Sex: World’s Best Guide to Sexual Aphrodisiacs , author William Livingstone brings renewed hope for sexual satisfaction to the beleagured male mojo. In the succinct work, the author provides Chinese, Indian, South American, Southeast Asian and other products to the rescue, complete with up to date source information. As opposed to the usual fare of prescription drug alternatives, the guide provides the male consumer with products that are less likely to cause the unwanted side effects, and that also address the underlying causes with a long term building effect.

The author is well qualified and experienced to address health issues, being a Licensed Nutritionist, Herbalist and product formulator with a Pharmaceutical background. When creating the guide, Livingstone looked at the dearth of good quality products and rampant hype in the marketplace. The source book has information on the historical usage of the obscure, but highly effective products Livingstone gathered from over twenty years of avid research. This gives the consumer a good idea as to what they can expect from each product, and how to utilize them for best results.

It is a difficult task for the male consumer to filter out all the hyped, overpriced, possibly harmful, or ineffective products being marketed. Add to this fact many so called experts and others do not believe aphrodisiac products really work, let alone exist. Yet there is plenty of ample scientific evidence, other expert opinion, and consumer belief from first hand experience, to the contrary. Hotter Sex: World’s Best Guide to Sexual Aphrodisiacs brings the male consumer a long needed, unique new venue for renewed sexual satisfaction. It is available to the public at the i-proclaim bookstore online.

An entirely original floral arrangement which not only appeals to Emotional Bliss’ core clientele of women aged 40 to 60 years of age, but also composed of aphrodisiacs and spices which subtly and tastefully evoke the theme of female sexuality.

The “gourmet bouquet” features a variety of seasonal blooms as well as anthuriums, an exotic flower which has an unusual appearance: a huge glossy heart, surrounding a phallic-looking stamen. Bananas, baby corn, orange peppers and carrots are included as their shape is reminiscent of sexual organs and reputed to enhance sexual desire. Ginger roots are also used as they excite the senses.

The discreet and female-oriented nature of the aphrodisiac-themed arrangement reflects the Emotional Bliss company ethos. This is particularly important to those women who might find it embarrassing to talk about sex, are reluctant to discuss any problems with their libido or who might normally regard buying a vibrator as tacky and sleazy – and not for them.

Paul Telford, Managing Director of Emotional Bliss, explains “Survey feedback from our female customers, particularly those aged 40 to 60 years of age, consistently highlights the fact that the high quality of Emotional Bliss vibrators and our tastefully elegant packaging is what makes us different from other vibrator companies, many of which fall into the tacky, sleazy genre.”

Recent user feedback (June 2008) on the new range of Emotional Bliss ‘heat’ vibrators highlights the attractive packaging and high degree of quality of the vibrators to be important to female users:

“The packaging is very stylish and smart, and quite unlike any toy I’d previously seen. It looks expensive, and a quality item.” (‘Imager’; Womolia Heat)
”The packaging was very discreet and well designed. On opening, the contents looked well made” (‘Al4Helen’; Femblossom Heat)

Emotional Bliss has spent the past five years researching and developing the new range of ‘heat’ vibrators which are fully tailored to the needs of women aged 40+. Nerve endings gradually deteriorate naturally due to ageing and also because of smoking, stress and alcohol, which means that more vibration is required with age.

Julia Cole, the psychosexual therapist, designed the vibrators for Emotional Bliss; a range of shapes and textures that caress the natural contours of a woman’s body. Julia Cole says

“Emotional Bliss vibrators have been re-mastered for 2008. We’ve listened to our customers and increased the vibrations from 120 hertz to 150 hertz as women aged 40+ prefer more intense stimulation. We’ve also created innovatory warmth which mimics the heat generated by the labia and clitoris when a woman is highly aroused, increasing her sexual response. Our 5 years of research and development means we know what women want and we’ve listened to that and have taken the steps to deliver what they asked for.”

The new range of ‘heat’ vibrators, including the Womolia heat and Femblossom heat are available to buy at www.emotionalbliss.co.uk and also at Victoria Health and via the Relate website.

For more information, samples, images and interviews with Paul Telford and Julia Cole, please contact:

Lucie Follett at Maven Metrics
Email: emotionalbliss@mavenmetrics.com
Tel: 020 7376 4484

Notes to Editors:

- National Orgasm Day 2008 is on July 31st

- The new range of Emotional Bliss heat vibrators is available to buy at www.emotionalbliss.co.uk

- The Womolia heat is priced at £49.95; the Femblossom heat at £49.95.

- They are also available to buy online at Victoria Health and via the affiliated Relate website.

- Emotional Bliss vibrators are created to fit the areas of a woman that respond most to sexual arousal – the clitoris and vaginal lips. This makes them more effective and satisfying than traditional internal vibrators.

- Made with medical grade materials, incorporating an anti-bacterial agent that sets new standards against the conventional sex toy industry.

- Julia Cole is a MBACP (British Association of Counselling & Psychotherapy) Accredited therapist specialising in couple and relationship therapy and psychosexual therapy with 23 years experience of counselling couples and individuals. She has worked for RELATE, both as a counsellor and national media officer and as a counsellor for the NHS and as a therapist for the London Haven (a centre for women with breast cancer).

- She has been a freelance writer and author, having written for most national newspapers and magazines. She has been ‘agony aunt’ for several national magazines. She is also the author of several books on relationships and sexuality.

- Arôme Créateur Floral is a SW London-based French floral designer which specialises in luxurious and stylish arrangements. Arôme’s distinctive style is a fusion of typical French sophistication with a touch of natural elegance.

- French owner Anne Breda-Verborg studied floral design at New York City’s Parsons School of Design and trained with elite florists Belle Fleur in Manhattan and Paula Pryke in London.

- The Arôme aphrodisiac arrangement, available to purchase, is priced from £65.00 + delivery.

A number of pheromones and pheromone-like substances have been isolated in humans, and have been shown in scientific studies to have an affect on a variety of human behavior and hormonal processes.
Whether these effects are 100% “true” pheromone reactions or not is an interesting point and worthy of further investigation, but is a moot point to the perfume industry.

The effects of pheromones may be modulated by the sexual experience of the target and/or by the extent to which the target’s VNO is still functional, but the fact is that a number of controlled human studies have shown that pheromones both natural and synthetic/supplemental do affect our social behavior, and a growing mountain of raving pheromone product testimonials also support these findings.

Furthermore, I have yet to come across even one pheromone study that has failed to show some significant effects from pheromones, and until that happens there is little alternative but to assume that pheromones work.

What follows are abstracts of controlled studies showing a relationship between supplemental pheromone use and human behavior.

Pheromones are volatile, odorous substances which are released by one animal and detected by another, causing some sort of physiological reaction. These reactions can manifest themselves in a variety of different ways: some pheromones modulate sexual activity, some affect aggression, some play roles in territory marking, and other pheromones have similarly diverse effects on the target animal. Pheromones have been demonstrated in a very large number of organisms ranging from amoebas to fish to mammals, including primates. However, the question of whether human olfactory signals exist has been a question of much debate and few definite conclusions. In this paper I will look at some possible examples of odor signaling in humans.Mammals of all sorts use olfactory signals to indicate willingness to copulate, define territory, mark their young, and signal aggressive intent. These processes can be seen in many animals used as models for human systems, including rats, monkeys (both Old World and New World), hamsters and mice. The fact that pheromones are important biological signals in a plethora of other species indicates that the possibility of human pheromones should not be discarded lightly.

Although humans generally rate olfaction as their least important sensory modality, we still spend billions of dollars, years of our life, and a considerable amount of effort to modify the way we smell (at least in industrialized countries). These efforts typically include scrubbing with deodorant soaps and scented shampoos, applying deodorants to those parts of our bodies we feel need deodorizing, and finally applying perfumes and sprays to replace those natural odors we just discarded down the shower drain. This points out an obvious contradiction: if olfaction is considered unimportant and possibly even obsolete, why do we work so hard to change the way we smell? The first question to address is where do these odors we produce come from? Whereas animals release pheromones from their skin, urine, feces, and to some extent breath, most research on pheromones in humans indicates that the main odor-producing organ is the skin. For the purposes of this paper, the skin is what I will focus on. These odors are largely produced by the skin’s apocrine sebaceous glands, which develop during puberty and are usually associated with sweat glands and tufts of hair. These glands are located everywhere on the body surface, but tend to concentrate in six areas1:

1) The axillae (underarms)

2) The nipples of both sexes2

3) The pubic, genital, and circumanal regions

4) The circumoral region and lips

5) The eyelids

6) The outer ear

The first four of these regions are generally associated with varying amounts of hair growth, which makes perfect sense, as the extremely large surface area of a tuft of hair is a very effective means of spreading an odor by evaporation. The fact that body hair and apocrine glands appear simultaneously at puberty is significant and suggests that body odor and its dispersal may be linked to sexual development. These supposedly non-functional structures, coupled with the olfactory system, would be called part of a pheromonal system in any other mammal.

The substances produced by these glands are relatively imperceptible by the human nose; what we smell when we detect skin odor is not the fresh glandular secretions but rather the bacterial breakdown products of these glandular secretions. The sebaceous secretions themselves consist mostly of lipids such as squalene and other esters. When degraded by enzymes of bacteria naturally present on human skin, free fatty acids result, including those that smell hircine and are generally regarded as unpleasant. The most prominent examples of these hircine fatty acids have the general formula (CH3(CH2)nCOOH) and are called butyric acid (n=2), caproic acid (n=4), and caprylic acid (n=6).

The first studies I will discuss relate to evidence for the existence of pheromone signaling in human babies and children. The first interesting studies regarding children come from Michael Kalogerakis and Irving Bieber. They proposed a theory that olfaction is related to sexual identification in young children. Kalogerakis performed a study on young boys, two to four years of age, which strongly indicated that at some point in early childhood, a boy will begin to show an aversion to the odors of their father, and will simultaneously feel attraction to the odors of their mother. According to Bieber, this indicates a shift in sexual interest and acts as a biological trigger for the Oedipus response. Kalogerakis supports this theory with a case study of a boy named Jackie, who originally was closer to his father, but at the age of three years, three months, began to show a distinct preference for his mother’s smells, especially at times right after she and Jackie’s father had been having intercourse. At four years of age, Jackie would become nauseous at the smell of his father. This behaviour continued, tapering off slowly until Jackie was six, and his sexual identity had presumably been established.

Another intriguing study was carried out by Michael J. Russell of UCSF in 1976. He enlisted the help of ten recent mothers, whom he asked to wear a cotton pad in their bra for three hours before testing. Russell then tested the sleeping babies’ ability to differentiate between pads worn by their own mothers and those worn by strange mothers. At the age of two days, only one of the ten babies responded to either type of pad, and he responded to both with a sucking response. At the age of two weeks, eight babies responded by sucking to a stranger’s pad, and seven responded to their mother’s pad. Also, one child responded only to its mother’s pad. At the age of six weeks, however, things had changed. Eight babies responded to their mother’s pad, one responded to a stranger’s pad, and one did not react to it’s mother’s pad but did react with a jerk and a cry to the stranger’s pad. These results may indicate either that a baby imprints on its mother’s odor, or as Russell suggests, that the mother unconsciously marks her baby with a distinctive scent, a phenomenon observed in many other primates. This latter possibility is supported by the common parental observation that a child will reject their favorite blanket or stuffed animal after it has been washed, presumably because it has lost specific odors acquired in previous contacts.

A final childhood phenomenon worth mentioning is one observed by Dr. Alex Comfort. Comfort noticed that in the past three centuries, the age of onset of menstruation for girls has had a direct correlation with the amount of time that young girls spend with boys. In pre-Victorian times, menstruation began at an early age, only slightly above the average age of onset now. However, in Victorian times, when mingling between the sexes was minimized as much as possible, the average age of onset climbed a few years. In post-Victorian times, as boys and girls were allowed to mingle more freely and coeducation appeared, the average age fell once again. Admittedly, this could be due to a number of other factors, but it is Comfort’s opinion that it is due to the exposure to odors of the opposite sex. In fact, this phenomenon has been documented in mice and is called the Vandenbergh effect: female mice raised alone in sterile cages have a much higher age of maturation than that of female mice raised alone in cages filled with a male mouse’s bedding material. When the bedding belonged to a castrated male mouse, this effect was not observed.

There are variations in odor perception between human adult males and females. Le Magnen and Doty found that this is most evident in the case of women’s acute ability to smell musk3, which are steroids, large cycloketone or lactones, often with side chains which are most likely involved with their biological specificity of action. All of these compounds are very similar to the male sex hormone testosterone (see appendix for structures). Whereas women are very sensitive (1 part in 109) to the musky odors of civetone (from the anal glands of the civet cat and used in many perfumes), exaltolide (a synthetic musk), and boar taint substance (a sexual attractant produced in the preputial glands of the boar), men are relatively insensitive (1 part in 106) to these substances. Moreover, women’s sensitivity to these substances varies as a function of where they are in their menstrual cycle: during menstruation, women are no more sensitive to musks than men, but about ten days after menstruation (ovulation — a woman’s peak fertility period), women reach their maximum sensitivity. In addition, women on the pill, women who have had ovarectomies, pregnant women, and post-menopausal women are relatively insensitive to these substances. Le Magnen deduced from these results that sensitivity to musk in women is critically defendant on the levels of estrogen in the blood: during ovulation, serum estrogen is at a peak, whereas serum levels of estrogen are low during menstruation, pregnancy, in post-menopausal women, women who have had ovarectomies, and birth-control pill users. Further, it is the action of progesterone which causes nasal congestion during menstruation and pregnancy4, and might be responsible for the reduced sensitivity at these times.

Why is this relevant? Men secrete musky odorants in abundance. The -3-ol precursor of boar taint substance is found in male urine, and substances similar to testosterone, such as androstenone, are secreted in the smegma and from the apocrine glands of the underarms5 and pubic area of males. As is usually the case, bacterial action may be necessary for the release of the odorants. The fact that men’s bodies secrete these substances and that women are maximally sensitive to them when they are most fertile indicates that there may be a olfactory-sexual role for these substances in human sexuality.

Indeed, a study performed by J. Richard Udry at the University of North Carolina attempted to delineate the relationship between coitus, orgasm and position in the menstrual cycle. He found that women do indeed engage in sexual intercourse about six times more frequently at about the time of ovulation, when women’s sensitivity to the male musk odor is highest. In addition, the women are much more likely to have an orgasm at these times. Further, the women Udry studied women were several times less likely to have sexual intercourse or have an orgasm during and two to three days after menstruation, which is when women’s sensitivity to the musky smell of men is lowest. Coupled with women’s odor sensitivity, these results could indicate a possible pheromonal trigger for sexual behaviour.

There are several other effects in adult humans which might hinge on pheromones. Some of the most interesting results come from work done by Martha McClintock at Harvard. She performed a study on menstrual cycles in women who lived together in dormitories and found that when women are housed together, their menstrual cycles tend to synchronize and lengthen. She also found that the lengthening effect was attenuated in direct relation to the amount of time these women spent with men. In one woman’s case, her regular cycle was six months long, but when she started seeing a man, it dropped to four and a half weeks. After she stopped seeing this man, her cycle once again lengthened. Of course, in an experiment like this, it is difficult to eliminate diet, work and sleep habits as factors, but the fact that this is such a widespread phenomenon indicates that something more basic is probably at work here. It is to be stressed that airborne odors or pheromones were not directly demonstrated in this study, but there is an identical phenomenon in mice that has been shown to be pheromonal in nature. This effect is called the Lee-Boot phenomenon, in which groups of female mice housed together experience increases and synchrony in their estrus cycles. When a female mouse is housed alone, this effect does not occur, but when a solitary female mouse is kept in a cage supplied with bedding from a cage full of female mice, the Lee-Boot effect is once again observed, indicating that the cues are chemosensory in nature. The attenuation of cycle elongation in women in response to male contact is also echoed in mice, and is called the Whitten effect. Once again this effect has been shown to be due to olfactory signals.

Michael Russell provided some more insight on the phenomenon of menstrual synchrony. A colleague of his, on reading McClintock’s paper, mentioned that she too had noticed the same phenomenon among her friends, except that in every case, it was her own menstrual cycle which determined the synchronization of her friends’. Upon hearing this, Russell asked his colleague if he could use her underarm scent to help confirm and extend McClintock’s findings. She consented, and proceeded to wear sterile cotton pads under her arms regularly. Russell the recruited sixteen female volunteers, each of whom came in three times a week for four months to have a liquid applied to her upper lip. One group of women had pure alcohol applied to their lips, and the other group had a mixture of alcohol and Russell’s colleague’s underarm scent from the previous day applied. The group which received pure alcohol did not experience changes in their menstrual cycle, but those that had the mix of alcohol and underarm scent applied showed a radical change in their cycles: The average time lag between cycles had been 9.3 days, but after four months, this had decreased to 3.4 days, and fully half the women were in exact synchrony with Russell’s colleague, discounting the the aforementioned one day time lag. None of these women had ever even met Russell’s colleague. McClintock’s study showed that women who lived together reported menstrual synchronization, and Russell’s study provided a likely mechanism: underarm scent. Another possible interpretation of this study leads to the conclusion that there may be dominant women with regard to menstrual synchrony, a phenomenon observed in many animals.

Dr. Russell provided yet another interesting result. At the same time he was performing his experiments on babies’ ability to discriminate between their own mothers and strange mothers, he performed another experiment on whether young adults could discriminate between their odors and others’ and between male and female odors. Twenty-nine college age students, 16 male and 13 female, were asked to wear a clean undershirt for twenty-four hours without using soap, deodorants, or perfumes. After twenty-four hours passed, the shirts were collected and put in buckets with the armpit right above a strategically placed sniffing hole. Two tests were then performed: the subjects were presented with three shirts, one theirs, one from a strange female and one from a strange male. The subjects were then asked to identify which shirt was theirs, taking as much time as needed. The subjects were then asked to identify which shirt belonged to the strange male and which shirt belonged to the strange female. The subjects generally sniffed each bucket once in succession, and then repeated the process. The results were impressive: 81% of the males and 69% of the females identified their own shirts correctly, for an average success rate of 75%, which is highly significant when compared to the chance percentage of 33%. In the second sex-identifying test, the subjects performed just as well: 81% of the males and 69% of the females were correct, for an average of 75%. Once again, this result was very significant, as chance would dictate a 50% success rate. When asked to characterize the odors of the shirts, the subjects generally said the males’ shirts smelled musky and the females’ shirts smelled sweet. This observation jibes well with the previous discussion of variations in odor perception.

One final effect needs to be mentioned due to large amount of research on it. There have been many studies on whether or not human vaginal secretions might contain some kind of sex pheromone (or “copulin”, as one researcher calls them). Several researchers have found that human vaginal secretions contain various small (C2 to C6) fatty acids, with acetic acid predominating. Richard P. Michael found that about 30% of the women (he called them ‘producers’) produced a significant amount of those small fatty acids (not including acetic acid) that induce copulatory behaviour in infra-human monkeys. In addition, these “copulins” increased up until ovulation, and then decreased as menstruation approached. Michael also noted that women on birth-control pills did not show this mid-cycle increase, and had a lower overall fatty acid content. Michael theorized that these fatty acids or “copulins” were a sexual trigger in humans, but this has never been demonstrated, although the producers’ secretions did increase copulatory behaviour in rhesus monkeys. When David Goldfoot’s group in Wisconsin tried to confirm these results, however, they were unsuccessful.

Are pheromones in humans a myth or are they real? At this point, it is difficult to say either a definite yes or a definite no. The field is obviously very confused, and for every paper one finds that seems to demonstrate the existence of human pheromones, one can find another equally compelling study refuting their existence. In this paper I have tried to consider a few compelling bits of evidence, but it should be noted that none of these results are yet widely accepted, and no pheromone has yet been isolated and conclusively linked to a physiological effect in humans. Further, much of the work in this field is of a qualitative nature, without adequate controls or firm statistical basis.

However, some of the results mentioned above are quite compelling. McClintock’s study and Russell’s extension seem to strongly indicate there is some odorant that affects women’s menstrual cycles. The fact that men secrete musk-like substances that women are maximally sensitive to during ovulation coupled with the finding that there is a demonstrated increase in coitus during this period is also very intriguing. “Copulins” may or may not be human sexual releasers, and they seem to stimulate copulatory behavior in monkeys, although this result has not been confirmed.

To close, I would like to propose a new way of looking at pheromones, specifically in humans. With our highly developed intellect and rich compliment of emotions, ambitions, motivations and desires, it may not be profitable to look at human pheromones the same way we look at animal pheromones. Instead of looking for odorants that cause a definite physiological response, it may behoove us to look at how possible pheromones affect our attitudes. We are not machines that blindly fall into some stereotyped behaviour in response to an odor, but we may be machines that are nudged towards a type of behaviour by pheromones in concert with our higher intellect.

Throughout the animal kingdom, it was well known (by 1979) that females emit sex attractants that cause males (of the same species) to approach. Animal pheromones were so well understood, by the late 70’s, that manufacturers were marketing them as pest controls; pheromones were used to lure and divert animals and bugs to traps to prevent crop and flower damage. I was fortunate to be one of the scientists working on the research that proved the existence of human pheromones for the first time.

The discovery of human sex pheromones appeared in front page stories internationally when my colleagues and I succeeded in peer-reviewed acceptance for publication in scientific journals in 1986. We provided the proof that women and men emitted pheromones into the atmosphere and we showed that extracted pheromones could be collected, frozen for over a year, thawed and then applied on the upper lip of recipients to mimic some of the pheromonal effects found in nature.
 
The End

Pheromones are airborne chemical signals that are released by an individual into the environment and which affect the physiology or behaviour of other members of the same species. The idea that humans produce pheromones has excited the imagination of scientists and the public, leading to widespread claims for their existence, which, however, has remained unproven. Here we investigate whether humans produce compounds that regulate a specific neuroendocrine mechanism in other people without being consciously detected as odours (thereby fulfilling the classic definition of a pheromone). We found that odourless compounds from the armpits of women in the late follicular phase of their menstrual cycles accelerated the preovulatory surge of luteinizing hormone of recipient women and shortened their menstrual cycles. Axillary (underarm) compounds from the same donors which were collected later in the menstrual cycle (at ovulation) had the opposite effect: they delayed the luteinizing-hormone surge of the recipients and lengthened their menstrual cycles. By showing in a fully controlled experiment that the timing of ovulation can be manipulated, this study provides definitive evidence of human pheromones.

The behavior of animals is strongly influenced by pheromones — chemicals made by one animal and “smelled” by another. Mating, dominance among males, weaning, recognition of members of social groups, and level of stress are all influenced, even controlled, by pheromones. Inside of the nose of nonhuman mammals is a specialized organ for receiving pheromones, which then communicates through special neural pathways to the hypothalamus. Until the last few years, common wisdom has been that humans did not communicate using pheromones. Then four years ago, a pheromone receptor was found in the human nose.Flashback: Thirty years ago, a Wellesley College student, Martha McClintock, noticed that the menstrual cycles of women living together tended to become synchronized over time: within several months of the new school year, roommates tended to get their periods at the same time. She wondered if pheromones could trigger such a phenomenon. McClintock, who is now at the University of Chicago, demonstrated previously that pheromones cause rats to experience synchronization of their menstrual cycles. In an elegant new study, she demonstrates that women produce a pheromone in their armpits during the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle that shortens the follicular phase of other women, and another pheromone during ovulation that lengthens the follicular phase of other women. There is considerable variability in the strength of response to pheromones. The chemical structure of the pheromones has not yet been determined. The pheromones are without a recognizable scent.

Comment: A new modality of human communication has been discovered, something beyond sight, sound, taste, scent, and touch: human pheromones. How much human behavior might be influenced (and ultimately manipulated) by pheromones? The answer could be profound.